The Challenge of a Fragmented Nation

The end of British rule on August 15, 1947, was a moment of triumph, but it also presented independent India with a monumental challenge: the political integration of a fragmented subcontinent. The Indian Independence Act of 1947 partitioned British India into the two dominions of India and Pakistan. However, it also declared the "lapsing of paramountcy," the British Crown's authority over the princely states. This meant that over 565 princely states, varying in size from a few acres to the size of France, were theoretically free to join either India or Pakistan, or to remain independent. This created the dangerous possibility of the "balkanization" of India, a political landscape fractured into hundreds of independent entities.

Sardar Patel and the Integration of States

The colossal task of persuading these states to join the Indian Union fell to Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister, ably assisted by his secretary, V. P. Menon. Patel employed a combination of strategies. He appealed to the rulers' sense of patriotism, reminding them of their shared culture and history. He used diplomatic persuasion and offered generous terms, including "privy purses" (government allowances) and the retention of their titles and privileges. At the same time, he made it clear that India would not tolerate independent states within its borders, using the implicit threat of both public protest and military action. Through this masterful mix of diplomacy and pressure, Patel and Menon secured the accession of almost all states with territories contiguous to India by August 15, 1947.

The Problem States: Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir

A few states, however, proved difficult. The ruler of Junagadh, a coastal state in Gujarat with a Hindu-majority population, was Muslim and announced his decision to accede to Pakistan. This was geographically absurd and against the wishes of his people, who revolted. India blockaded the state, and a plebiscite (public vote) was held, which resulted in an overwhelming vote in favor of joining India.

The Nizam of Hyderabad, who ruled a large, prosperous, and landlocked state in the heart of India, dreamed of an independent status. He refused to join India and began building up his army of irregulars, known as the Razakars, who terrorized the local population. After months of failed negotiations, the Indian government launched a swift five-day "police action" codenamed "Operation Polo" in September 1948. The Nizam's forces were quickly defeated, and Hyderabad was integrated into the Indian Union.

The case of Jammu and Kashmir was the most complex. The ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, was a Hindu, while the population was majority-Muslim. He initially wanted to remain independent. However, in October 1947, an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen backed by the Pakistan army forced his hand. He appealed to India for help and signed the Instrument of Accession to India in exchange for military assistance. This led to the first Indo-Pakistani War and a long-standing dispute over the region that continues to this day.

Completing Decolonisation: French and Portuguese Territories

The process of decolonisation was not complete with the departure of the British. The French and Portuguese still held small colonial enclaves in India. The French territories included Puducherry (Pondicherry), Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahe. After prolonged negotiations and the growth of strong local pro-merger movements, the French government peacefully transferred de facto control of these territories to India in 1954.

The Portuguese, under the authoritarian Salazar regime, were much more stubborn. They refused to relinquish their control over Goa, Daman, and Diu, claiming they were integral parts of Portugal, not colonies. After years of diplomatic efforts failed and popular unrest grew within Goa, the Indian government finally launched a military operation called "Operation Vijay" in December 1961. After a brief 36-hour conflict, the Portuguese forces surrendered. These territories were formally incorporated into India, finally completing the political and geographical integration of the subcontinent.