The Context for Reform

The 19th century in India was a period of profound intellectual and social ferment. The consolidation of British rule, the introduction of Western education and modern communications, and the work of Christian missionaries posed a significant challenge to traditional Indian society and religious beliefs. In response, a number of educated Indians initiated various social and religious reform movements. These movements aimed to modernize Indian society by challenging deeply entrenched social evils, reinterpreting religious tenets, and promoting a rational and humane worldview.

Brahmo Samaj and Raja Ram Mohan Roy

One of the earliest and most influential reformers was Raja Ram Mohan Roy, often called the "Father of Modern India." In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Sabha (which later became the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta. The Brahmo Samaj advocated for monotheism (worship of one God) based on the Upanishads and condemned practices like idol worship, polytheism, and meaningless rituals. Ram Mohan Roy is most famous for his relentless campaign against Sati, the horrific practice of a widow immolating herself on her husband's funeral pyre. His tireless efforts, which involved petitioning the British government and citing ancient Hindu texts, were instrumental in the passing of the Bengal Sati Regulation in 1829, which banned the practice. He also championed women's rights and advocated for the introduction of modern, scientific education in India.

Arya Samaj and Swami Dayananda Saraswati

Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in Bombay in 1875. His motto was "Go back to the Vedas," as he believed the Vedas were the infallible, divinely inspired source of all true knowledge and that later Hindu texts like the Puranas were responsible for corrupt practices. The Arya Samaj strongly worked against idol worship, the rigid hereditary caste system, child marriage, and untouchability. It actively promoted female education and the right of widows to remarry. The Arya Samaj also started the Shuddhi movement, a purification ritual to reconvert Hindus who had converted to other religions like Islam and Christianity.

Satyashodhak Samaj and the Phules

In Western India, Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitribai Phule led a powerful movement against caste and gender discrimination. Jyotiba Phule, who came from a lower caste, founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Truth Seekers) in 1873. Its primary aim was to fight for the social and economic rights of the non-Brahmin lower-caste people (whom he termed Bahujans) and liberate them from the oppression of the Brahmin elite. He advocated for education as the main tool for liberation. Savitribai Phule is revered as a pioneer of women's education in India. Together, they opened the first school for girls in Pune in 1848, a revolutionary act at the time.

Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda

The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897, inspired by the teachings of his guru, the mystic saint Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Vivekananda's message was one of spiritual revival and practical, selfless service. He famously introduced Hindu philosophy (specifically Vedanta) to the Western world at the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago. The Ramakrishna Mission did not focus on changing rituals but on a synthesis of Eastern spirituality and Western practicality. It focused on the principle of "service to man is service to God" (Daridra Narayana Seva) and established numerous hospitals, schools, orphanages, and disaster relief operations.

Other Important Reform Movements

Several other movements contributed to this era of change. The Aligarh Movement, led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, promoted modern, scientific education among Muslims and founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, which later became Aligarh Muslim University. In Bengal, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a relentless campaigner for the remarriage of widows, leading to the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856. The Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra and the Theosophical Society also worked towards social and religious reform. These diverse movements played a crucial role in shaping a modern Indian identity and laying the intellectual foundations for the later nationalist movement.